Morality and Money Essay Example for Free

Morality and Money Essay No doubt, Money is an essential, almost indispensable article in the present day world. It is the’ money’ through which we can purchase all the necessary comforts and amenities of life. If you have money, you can obtain what seems impossible to others. It is the money which gives man, confidence, creditworthiness, credentials, capacity, capabilities and courage. In present day materialistic world, money has become very powerful. In the present day corruption, cut throat competition, callous degradation of moral and ethical values, are for the sake of grabbing and accumulating more and more money. The prestige, respect, social status, commanded by a person is calculated per his monetary status. Time has gone, when we valued a person in evaluated of his moral and ethical values. People were earlier known for keeping their words, for donating every thing to a donee. Now people are know in terms of their ranking in the list of rich of the world. Money has become the centre of all activities. Money and muscle power have become essential ingredients of a successful political leader. Money is regarded as omnipotent by a few people, particularly by the poor. As whatever one does not possess, one aspires it badly, and it becomes mono aim of achievement. For the rich, that owe lots of money, still craving to earn more and more, by hook or by crook, with fair or foul means, without caring even for their own health, own family. They are the servants of money, earning money not for the sake of themselves but for the sake of money and a time comes they find themselves unable to use the money for their happiness. They are unable to eat, unable to taste the most delicious dish, unable to move, walk or enjoy because they suffer from many diseases which are the result of their undue craving for wealth at the cost of health. Can one purchase anything with the power of money? No, one cannot. You cannot purchase inner satisfaction with money, you cannot purchase the lost youthfulness with money, you cannot purchase time from the death at any cost. Those who earn money simply to a have more money, more balance in their accounts are no better than the proverbial miser king ‘Midas’. Excessive love for money, make a man slave of money. Money is important for our life, but it is not the most important thing for a human being. Those who use money for fulfilling their necessities, acquiring reasonable comforts and for the welfare of a common good, are the masters of money. But those who earn money just for the sake of increasing its volume and number are slaves of the money. They are the most unfortunate creatures of God who know well that whatever money they are earning, can’t be taken an iota of that when they die even they are minting more and more money. What a paradox Money has become their master and they are just slaves, having no peace of mind, no moral and ethical values, no inner satisfaction. So it is rightly said that money is a good servant but a bad master. Let us use the money for our comfort, not for the sake of money, minting more and more money.

Leadership Styles in Sainsburys

Leadership Styles in Sainsburys ABSTRACT Nowadays we can distinguish many different types of leadership styles. Some of them are respected by employees, but on the other hand there are also styles which are considered very poorly. This paper presents and explores leadership styles based on the observations of managers in Sainsburys Nine Elms. In the first part research question has been formed and discussed. The second part is a literature review, with characteristic of most popular leadership styles. In the third part, methodology which will be used for research and to find an answer on research question will be discussed. 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1. RATIONALE Human resource management is a series of activities which, first enables working people and the organisation which uses their skills to agree about the objectives and nature of their working relationship. Secondly, ensures that the agreement is fulfilled. (Torrington, 2008) This research project will be based on a field, which is human resource. One of the topics which should be explored in reference to human resources is leadership style. In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a catalyst and servant whose leadership style is support, advocating and empowerment. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a pushover whose leadership style is abdication and fraud. Human Resource Leaders believe in people and communicate that belief; they are visible and accessible; they empower, increase participation, support, share information and move decision making down into the organization. We recognize effective leaders when we work with them or observe them. However many different ways exist for defining who leaders are and when they are effective. Dictionaries define leading as guiding and directing on a course. A leader is someone with commanding authority or influence. Researchers have developed many working definitions of leadership. According to Nahavandi (2009) leader is a person who influence individuals and groups within an organization, helps them in establishing goals and guides them toward achievement of those goals, thereby allowing them to be effective. Leadership is a function more than a role. Good leaders are made not born. 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION Research Question is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied. The research question, which I am going to study is: How does the leadership style affect employees performance in the organisation? The research will be based on the case study, which is supermarket. Sainsburys Nine Elms is a place where I have been working for over 3 years. I have a contact with managers every day and whats more I am familiar with different styles of leadership. This experience helps me to formulate the following hypothesis: positive and accurate leadership style motivates people to good and effective work. To find an answer on my research question and to confirm my hypothesis, I will do some qualitative research. This type of research is designed to tell the researcher how and why the things happen as they actually do. It helps to achieve an in-depth understanding of a situation. . 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY Positive atmosphere in the work place is a very important factor and has a big influence on employees job. This is why the way how leaders and managers behave is so important. Unfortunately my long-time observations prove that managers very often do not even realize what kind of mistakes they do. They do not understand that their inappropriate way of behaviour, has an influence on peoples work and effectiveness of the organization. The aim of this report, based on literature review, is to describe the most valuable and effective leadership styles. Moreover the most negative styles will be considered, those which are not approved of by employees. Finally some interviews with Sainsburys Nine Elms employees will be made to gather their opinions and verify my hypothesis. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 LEADERSHIP STYLES IN EARLY XX Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. Lewin (1939) led a group of researchers to identify different styles of leadership. This early study has been very influential and established three major leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire. In the past several decades, there has been a significant revolution in how the leadership is defined by management experts. Their approach has changed from a classical one to a very innovative, democratic approach. Although it was also determined that some old ideas were still good whereas some of the new ones were not perfect. The key is to use different styles depending on each situation so leaders have to approach every case in a different way. LEADERSHIP STYLES TODAY There are four primary leadership styles, many of them we can find within most businesses or organizations around the world. These styles are: Autocratic Democratic Laissez-faire Bureaucratic Each of the leadership styles has impact on employee performance in the company. There are short and long-term effects of each style. For instance, the authoritative style may produce great results in a short amount of time. However, excessive use of authority will decrease productivity in the long-term. People either get fed up and leave or fall into a malaise of hum-drum repetitive tasks without creativity and innovation. (Sadler, 2003) AUTOCRATIC STYLE The autocratic leadership style is very often regarded as an old fashioned technique. It was a very popular style among managers commanding subordinates and it is still used around the world. This style basically comes natural to many leaders and brings many benefits, thus many managers start to lead using this style and try to improve it when pursuing their own leadership development. This style is used when leaders inform their employees what they want done and how they want it attained, without being advised by their followers. Furthermore when leaders are short on time, they have all information needed to achieve a goal and employees are enthused, autocratic still is also common. Nevertheless it should be used occasionally and with big carefulness. Having a lot of time and dealing with highly motivated workers it is better to use democratic style. DEMOCRATIC STYLE The democratic leadership style is also named the participative style due to the fact that it encourages one or more employees to be a part of the decision making process (determining what to do and how to do it). Nevertheless it is the leader who makes the final decision and maintains authority. Definitely this style strengthens the position of the leader which is respected by his employees. When information and data is divided between the leader and employees, democratic style is used very often. Managers are not expected to be familiar with everything, this is why they employ knowledgeable and competent employees. Concluding, using this style is of mutual benefit, because employees can become a part of the team and on the other hand leaders can make better decisions. LAISSEZ-FAIRE STYLE The laissez-faire leadership style is also known as the hands-off ¨ style. This style is based on making the decisions by employees whenever the leader let them. Even though, he is still responsible for all the decisions. This style is used usually when employees are able to decide what needs to be done and how. They also should have good analytical skills. Leaders only set most of the priorities for their team and divide tasks between employees. This style should be used only when leaders are confident about his people and trust them no matter what. It should not be used as a way of blaming employees of made mistakes. BUREAUCRATIC STYLE The bureaucratic leadership follow the rules rigorously and guarantee that staff follows procedures accurately. In this kind of style everything must be done according to the rules or policy. This is a very appropriate style for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with heavy equipment, with toxic substances, or at dangerous heights) or where large sums of money are involved (such as handling cash). If manager is not capable of making decision on his own, he refers to the next level above him or her. The role of the leader is very similar to a police officer. OTHER LEADERSHIP STYLES There are a number of different approaches or styles to leadership and management that are based on different assumptions and theories. The style that individuals use will be based on a combination of their beliefs, values and preferences, as well as the organizational culture and norms which will encourage some styles and discourage others. CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP A charismatic leadership style can seem similar to transformational leadership, because these leaders inspire lots of enthusiasm in their teams and are very energetic in driving others forward. However, charismatic leaders tend to believe more in themselves than in their teams. As a result this creates a risk that a project or even an entire organization might collapse if the leader leaves. In the eyes of the followers, success is directly connected to the presence of the charismatic leader. Therefore charismatic leadership carries great responsibility and requires a long-term commitment from the leader. It is interesting to watch a charismatic leader working the room as they move from person to person. They pay much attention to the person they are talking to at a particular moment, so this person very often feels like a most important person in the world. Charismatic leaders focus as well on scanning and reading their environment and are also good at picking up the moods and concer ns of both individuals and larger audiences. Then they will hone their actions and words to suit the situation. (Conger Kanungo, 1998) PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve other people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers and superiors. However, managers are still very important, as they decide whether to give or deny control to their subordinates. Most participative activity can be observed within the immediate team. The question of how much independence others are given thus may vary on the managers preferences and inclinations. A whole spectrum of participation is possible, as in the table below. Highly participative > Autocratic decision by leader Leader proposes decision, listens to feedback, then decides Team proposes decision, leader has final decision Joint decision with team as equals Full delegation of decision to team The level of participation may also depend on the type of decision being made. Decisions on how to accomplish goals may be highly participative, whereas decisions during subordinate performance evaluations are more likely to be taken by the manager TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP This style of leadership starts with the idea that team members agree to obey their leader completely when they accept a job. The term transaction means that usually the organization pays the team members in return for their hard effort and compliance. If they do not work as stated in the agreement, they might be punished by the leader. In this style rules are very clear and reward system is introduced for the hardest working subordinates. Moreover, punishments are also possible and formal systems of discipline are quite common. The leader can give an opportunity for his team members to have an impact on their income. It happens when they work harder which cause greater productivity. Alternatively, a transactional leader could practice management by exception rather than rewarding better work. In fact transactional leadership is rather type of management than an actual leadership style. It focus basically on short-term task and is not suitable for a creative work. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP People with this leadership style are true leaders who inspire their teams constantly with a shared vision of the future. While this leaders enthusiasm is often passed onto the team they can be supported by detail people. Thats why, in many organizations, both transactional and transformational leadership are essential. The transactional leaders (or managers) ensure that routine work is done consistently, while the transformational leaders look after initiatives that add value. Working for a transformational leader can be a brilliant and uplifting experience. Whatever they do they put passion and energy into it. They care about team and want them to succeed. Transformational leaders also tend to see the big picture, but not the details. So if they do not have people to pay attention on this level of information, then they are usually doomed to fail. Finally, transformational leaders, by definition, seek to transform and develop. When the organization does not transform and nobody com plain about his fact, then such a leader will be frustrated. Like wartime leaders, however, given the right situation they come into their own and can be personally responsible for saving entire companies. (Burns, 1978) TASK ORIENTED LEADERSHIP Highly task-oriented leaders focus only on getting the job done, so as a result they can be quite autocratic. They actively define the work and the roles demanded, put structures in plan and place, then they organize it and finally monitor. However, there is a danger connected with this style, that it might suffer the same drawbacks as autocratic style. Leaders do not pay to much attention about their team members as they focus only on finishing the task. PEOPLE ORIENTED (RELATIONS ORIENTED) LEADERSHIP This is the opposite of task-oriented leadership. In this style leaders are completely focused on organizing, supporting, and developing the people in their teams. It might be compared to a participative style as it has similar assumptions. Most valued are team cooperation and creativity. In practice, very often leaders tend to use both task-oriented and people-oriented styles of leadership. SERVANT LEADERSHIP This term was created by Robert Greenleaf, describes a leader who is often not formally recognized as such. He says that true leadership emerges from those whose primary motivation is a deep desire to help others. Servant leadership is a very moral position, putting the well-being of the followers before other goals. When someone, at any level within an organization, leads simply by meeting the needs of the team, he or she is described as a servant leader. In many ways, servant leadership is a form of democratic leadership, because the whole team tends to be involved in decision making. Supporters of the servant leadership model recommend it as an important way to move ahead in a world where values are increasingly important and where servant leaders achieve power on the basis of their values and ideals. Others state that in competitive leadership situations, people who practice servant leadership can find themselves left behind by leaders using other leadership styles. (Greenleaf, 1 977) SAINSBURYS NINE ELMS- CASE STUDY J Sainsbury plc was founded in 1869 by John James and Mary Ann Sainsbury. Drury Lane was one of Londons poorest areas and the Sainsburys shop quickly became popular there for offering high-quality products at low prices. Today Sainsburys is the UKs longest standing and third largest supermarket. Operates a total of 872 stores comprising 537 supermarkets and 335 convenience stores, as well as Sainsburys Bank. Sainsburys employs over 160 000 colleagues and serves over 19 million customers a week. The store Sainsburys Nine Elms was open in February 1982 with 100 employee and 3 departments. Within almost 30 years the store has changed a lot. Today the store has 346 employees and 11 departments. Every department has its own department manager plus store manager and 3 DU store managers. Most of the managers are male, only 2 female and all of them between 26-45 years old. And every one of them represents different style of leadership. From very strict and autocratic through task oriented leadership till completely laissez-faire style. Leadership style is very important in a company or a firm. This is because a leaders job is to help everyone e.g. the leader can help workers in a company by training them to improve their skills at work. Leadership style inspires people to achieve demanding goods. Leadership explains many different approaches that can be taken to be an effective leader. Good leaders are made and not born. They develop themselves through a never ending process of self-study, education, training and experience. 3.0 METHODOLOGY 3.1 RESEARCH METHODS There are two measure research methods: quantitative and qualitative. Some researcher prefers to take a quantitative approach to address their research question and design study that involves collecting quantitative data and analysing those using statistical methods. Other opportunity is qualitative method, which involves collecting qualitative data and analysing them by using interpretative methods. (Collis Hussey, 2009) For this project the most suitable method will be qualitative. Figure bellow shows, how the qualitative research and research process should goes. Figure 1: Qualitative Research and Research Process (Cooper Schindler, 2008) 3.2 QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUES According to Cooper and Schindler (2008) qualitative techniques are used at both the data collection and data analysis stages of a research project. This project will be based on primary data and inductive method. Three techniques will be used to collect the data: individual interview, case studies and research observation. 3.2.1 INTERVIEW The interview is the primary data collection technique. They vary depending on the number of people involved during the interview, the level of structure, the proximity of the interviewer to the numbers of interviews conducted during the research. There are 3 ways of interviewing: à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚ ¼ unstructured interview- no specific questions or order of topic to be discussed. à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚ ¼ semi structured interview- starts with few specific questions and then additional questions are asked with reference to the answers from opening questions à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚ ¼ structured interview- specific, detailed questions, normally with open-ending Most of the qualitative research is made on unstructured or semi structured interview. It enables the interviewer to ask additional questions during the interview to gain more information. Many interviews are made face-to-face, which increase the quality of the interview. This kind of interview is more valuable than an interview by phone or online, because it allows the interviewer to observe nonverbal behaviour of the people. It is very important for the interviewer to have at least a basic knowledge about making an interview. Knowing how to gains someones trust and how to encourage answering questions honestly is definitely significant. Usually the interviewer is responsible for generating the interview, questions or topic to be discussed and what the order should be. The figure bellow shows the hierarchical questioning structure. Figure 2: The interview Question Hierarchy (Cooper Schindler, 2008) 3. 2. 2 CASE STUDY The case study (case history) is a very significant research methodology that includes individual and (sometimes) group interviews with record analysis and observation. Firstly researchers gain information from company brochures, annual reports, magazines and newspapers articles, and then together with direct observation, they finally combine it with interview data from members. The aim of this method is to obtain multiple perspectives of a single organisation. The case study should have a case which is the object of study. It should have the following characteristics: a complex functioning unit; investigated in its natural context with a multitude of methods and be a contemporary one. Yin (1993) has identified some specific types of case studies: Exploratory cases are sometimes considered as a prelude to social research. Explanatory case studies may be used for doing causal investigations. Descriptive cases require a descriptive theory to be developed before starting the project. Stake (1995) included three others case studies, which are: Intrinsic cases when the researcher has an interest in the case. Instrumental cases when the case is used to understand more than what is obvious to the observer. Collective cases when a group of cases is studied. 3. 2. 3 OBSERVATION Observation involves looking and listening very carefully. It is very common that people observe each other, although they do not look for anything particular and do not discover any reasonable information about their behaviour. It is possible to distinguish different relationship between observer and participant, view from three perspectives: Directness of Observation Concealment Participation Direct observation, when the observer is physically present and personally monitors what takes place. In this kind of observation, it possible for the observer to respond to certain aspects of human behaviour as they occur, therefore this method is very flexible. Indirect observation, when the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic means. In comparison to the direct observation, the indirect one is less flexible. But on the other hand permanent data can be reanalysed many times so many different aspects of an event can be included. Another factor which affects relationship observer and participant is concealment. The question is, whether the observer should reveal himself. From the psychological point of view, it might be damaging (it has negative influence on the observation outcome) because people who know that are being observed, do not behave normally. On the other hand, hidden observation is a form of spying and the propriety of this action must be reviewed carefully. The best scenario is to reveal that people are being observed but the objectives and participant of interest are hidden. The last type of relationship is based on the observer participation in the whole situation while observing. Participant observation often requires months or years of intensive work, due to the fact that researcher needs to become accepted as a natural part of the culture. By doing this it is most likely that the observation will be of the natural phenomenon. Besides collecting data visually by observation, we can also use communication. The figure below describes the conditions under which observation is an appropriate method for data collection. Figure 3: Selecting the Data Collection Method (Cooper Schindler, 2008) Before starting the observation, it is necessary to make a good plan. Helpful might be finding the answers for this few important questions: WHO? Who do we want to observe? Does a person suit our criteria? WHAT? What do we want to observe? What are we concerned about? What is the aim of our observation? How long or what period of time? How often (daily, few times a week)? How many hours? WHEN? When do we want start our observation? Is there some specific period of time (for example Christmas time)? HOW? Will the data be directly observed? How many people will be observe? WHERE? Where does the observation take place? The location of the observation? 3.3 RESEARCH PROCESS ONION The research methodology of the present dissertation proposal is influenced and structured by the research process onion, which was developed and introduced by Saunders et al. (2003). The figure below illustrates the relationships between research philosophies, research methodologies, data collection methods, and more. Figure 4: Research Process ONION 4.0 CONCLUSION Concluding, so far in this report leadership styles has been explored and precisely described. The influence of each leadership style on the employees has been investigated as well. In the methodology part, qualitative method has been discussed which will be used for the research. It will be based on three different methods which are: interview, case study and observation. Case study of this report will be the place of my employment which is Sainsburys Supermarket which also has been briefly described.

Impact of Photography and Film on Art

Impact of Photography and Film on Art Photography and film have changed our notion of art. Discuss. To explore how photography and film have changed our notion of art, we must elude to Walter Benjamins essay, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction[1]. Here, Walter Benjamin, discusses how art changed in the face of technology, and how state economies, the way art is perceived, the impact of reproduction, and how the meaning of artworks change through time, is discussed predominantly in the wake of film. He also puts forward the idea of the value of the work of art is linked to its authenticity. â€Å"The presence of the original is the prerequisite to the concept of authenticity.† And sites various reactions to the emergence of film. â€Å"I can no longer think what I want to think. My thoughts have been replaced by moving images[2].† He writes about the impact of the reproduction of art. â€Å"Mechanical reproduction of art changes the reaction of the masses toward art†, and the difference between aspects of film and other art forms. When comparing the painter and the cameraman, Walter Benjamin compared them to a magician and a surgeon. â€Å"The magician heals a sick person by the laying on of hands; the sur geon cuts into the patients body.† When Walter Benjamin wrote his essay, film was emerging as a powerful art form, â€Å"The shooting of a film, especially of a sound film, affords a spectacle unimaginable anywhere at any time before this†, and obviously influenced The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, possibly fearing that arts heritage would be lost in the wake of technology, â€Å"The technique of reproduction detaches the reproduced object from the domain of tradition.† The purpose of this essay is to take these ideas and re-evaluate them in our 21st century world, to enable us to explore how our notions, or ideas and conceptions of art, in relation to photography and film have changed. Through examining our notion of art and how it has been manipulated through photography and film, we will be able to gauge what art means to us, its use, what influences art, and how we perceive it. Arguably the biggest impact over the last two to three decades on art has been the rise of the market economy. Through striving for profit, the media industry that arguably utilises art has been greatly affected. The use of art has become a kind of dictated president. The use of demographics has largely dictated what kind of films and television programmes people watch. In relation to art, the question has to be asked: Is there room for art in demographic driven film? This can be explored further in relation to television, especially where reality television is concerned. In his essay, Walter Benjamin ask a similar question, â€Å"The question remains whether it provides a platform for the analysis of the film.† Perhaps to answer this question we need to look at other art forms. Music, like film has gone through a change in how it is made, and there is arguably a clear division between commercial music, and music from artists wanting to express themselves. Where as twenty years ago the pendulum was arguably more balanced, with the advent of television talent programmes and their subsequent success, the popular song has become formulaic. The creativity, or the â€Å"cult† element has been lost in the commercialism of music, and subsequently it is more like painting by numbers, than a tapestry of sound. This argument to a degree is now present in the film industry. Film scripts, particularly in the action genre, seem to fit a certain format, and subsequently, one seems a lot like another, save perhaps a few exceptions. Art has little scope for recognition in this kind of film. Walter Benjamin: â€Å"The masses seek distraction whereas art demands concentration from the spectator.† The merits of which still seem to prevail. This leads us to the question, what do people actually want from their film going experience? If art is an expression of idea through a creative medium, then this is not art that is being sought, or offered, as there is no expression of ideas, but rather a tried and tested rerun of what sells. Marketing has played its part in changing our notion of art. It has not only conducted research into demographics, but also packaged the film to make it more fit for consumption by a mass mainstream audience. It has kind of duped us into believing that we want to see a film that we really do not. This clever use of marketing and its power should never be underestimated. Its reach stretches to wherever there is a product and consumer. The driver here is money and investment, and film companies want a top return for their outlay. Though this is understandable, the results are arguably limiting the scope of art to take form. Western Governments may not have been directly responsible for the demise of art to commercial demographics, but by allowing the rise of the market economy to strive for greater profits above all else, ideas driven film inevitably was always going to be displaced to a more profitable, formula led system. In this way, Western Governments have created the condition for this kind of film making to exist. If art is suffering in commercial film, it is growing from independent film makers. Here, it could be argued that the art of film making still exists, where the demographic driven formula of the commercial sphere is rested, and ideas are used to guide a film from beginning to end. It should also be noted that with the advent of websites such as Youtube, and Flickr, and more affordable technology, film making and photography are arguably more affordable to the average person in the street than ever before. How much of the content of these sites is art is questionable, but nonetheless, keen people looking to explore the worlds of film making and photography, are striving to achieve something more than just a home video and snapshots, and now have the tools to explore their own creativity and self expression. In the minds of most people, film is a source of entertainment. It is not a crucible for culture. Most films that people see would have undergone the demographic research we have discussed previously, and been screened in front of a test audience. Depending on the results of the test audience, the film may have been edited again. Art, which is arguably in short supply, may well have been lessened further as a result. As Walter Benjamin stated, â€Å"The public is an examiner, but an absent minded one.† Photography, on the other hand, seems to come into its own when used for its shock power. Photographers have carved out a niche for themselves in this arena by combining the controversial with a particular topic. It has also shown to be an instrument of real power, especially on a battlefield, where a dead body can tell a thousand words. Where photography perhaps has the edge over film on an artistic level, is that there are no demographics to dictate the content of the picture. In fact, the art of photography lies in the technique of the photographer. Art in this form, is what people are left with. Photographers have a freer rain to practise their art than their film contemporaries. Our notion of art in photography is what we are left with when we view the picture. Exactly what this is, is hard to determine, but for all intense and purposes the art is still there. The power of the camera should never be understated. Injustices, tragedies, and humours moments are remembered by all. 9/11, the Tiananmen square massacre, Vietnam, are all images that have stayed with people long after the events have taken place. Art is not something that immediately is apparent, but the statement by Marinetti[3] that, â€Å"War is beautiful†, does resonate in some way. Though other feelings are prevalent to: Shock, fear, intrigue, horror and abhorrence. If a destruction of another human being can be classified as beautiful, then perhaps this is because of authenticity, which provides the basis of value for a genuine work of art. Perhaps a student being unjustly killed, a village being massacred or people being crushed to death in a collapsing building, gives the lives lost a meaning albeit a grim one, and here in lies the art, both genuine and authentic. It is a nice thought that art is intrinsically linked to something profound, and something that represents humanity. Walter Benjamin wrote, â€Å"But the instant the criterion of authenticity ceases to be applicable to artistic production, the total function of art is reversed. Instead of being based on ritual, it begins to be based on another practice-politics† Indeed, politics, in our day and age is about gaining advantage where possible to reinforce a position through manipulating facts and arguably truths. Perhaps artistic value in film and pictures that depict tragedy is lost once the act moves into the political arena, as through manipulation authenticity dies, and with it the value of life and death. One could say that the death of authenticity, is actually the death of art in mass market media. Tragedy, seems to be all around us, and now you can watch the events of it on a hundred television channels. The world wide web which is accessible to many people around the globe, can show tragic events at any time of the day. Perhaps the authenticity is dying because we are saturated by similar images. We are becoming immune to its effects and therefore immune to art itself. We have seen it every week in one form or another. Many actors are groomed in the same way, and so look similar. The uniqueness is lost to the mainstream, and so art is lost, for without uniqueness there can be no art. The Mona Lisa would not hang in the Louvre if twenty million people had there own copy painted by Leonardo De Vinci hanging in their kitchens. To this end, Walter Benjamin states that, â€Å"Thus the same public which responds in a progressive manner toward a grotesque film is bound to respond in a reactionary manner to surrealism†, could not have predicted the deadening of sensibilities due to the saturation of horrific imagery. Perhaps then, Franz Wefel[4] who states, â€Å"The film has not yet realized its true meaning, its real possibilities..these consist in its unique faculty to express by natural means and with incomparable persuasiveness all that is fairylike, marvelous, supernatural†, was more in tune with what film, cinema, and television would become. Arguably, it has realised its potential and has done so for some time, with the magical quality coming in the form of various visual, and special effects. Creating an illusion in this sense, is arguably the art of the film. Where a counterpoint exists, is that many effects are duplicated- The hero does not fight one deadly monster, but five. Authenticity is lost, through duplication. Only where all these effects come together to give us something unique, can art be created. Perhaps then, the exhibition is where we begin to understand the true meaning of art. Arguably, this arena is where we are most exposed to it. Art is all around us and in everything, but through mainstream media it has been removed and not replaced by anything tangible. The gallery offers the photograph to the viewer as it was meant to be seen, and not perhaps through the same eyes of the photographer, but has taken a different meaning from shutter click to development. The art is prevalent, and our notion and awareness of creative expression is heightened. The impact is optimised, unlike a computer monitor where it can blend into a mirage of other pictures. Unlike an art form from civilisations long dead, where the art form would have been created for a ritual, and later as a valued artwork in an exhibition, contemporary photographic art is seemingly created to become a valued artwork in an exhibition. Though the picture was taken to convey an idea or a concept. The gallery offers us art, and to many of us this is the first image that springs to mind when the word ‘art is mentioned. With art prevailing less in mainstream film, can it be argued that it prevails less in society? The traditional journey of an art form whereby it starts by serving a purpose and ends as an exhibition piece does not apply. This was recognised by Walter Benjamin. â€Å"Today photography and the film are the most serviceable exemplifications of this new function.† Interestingly, he eludes that the â€Å"artistic value†, may not be that important. â€Å"later may be recognized as incidental†. Evidently, by examining the past, we can see that art has changed as it has aged. As Walter Benjamin states, â€Å"Work of art in prehistoric times when, by the absolute emphasis on its cult value, it was first and foremost, an instrument of magic. Only later did it come to be recognized as a work of art.† Applied to film and photography, the better remembered creations are ones that are unique in their approach and what they achieve. The finished product is not a paint by numbers affair, and is a creative process from start to finish. In conclusion, our notion of art through the mainstream is diminishing. Market forces, demographics, and clever marketing, has turned potential works of artistic creations of film, into a film made to a formula. In this environment, the film looses its uniqueness as it is made to a set criteria, like its predecessor and indeed, its successor. Once this happens, the film has lost its uniqueness and subsequently, it has lost its art. It is probably fair to put forward the statement that not many people associate mainstream film making with artistic achievement. Rather as a source of entertainment, whereby the only opinion expressed is whether or not they liked it. So Walter Benjamins analysis, â€Å"The public is an examiner, but an absent-minded one†, still prevails today. With the advent of the world wide web, and images and imagery effectively available on demand, we are becoming saturated with images of a similar nature. No matter how tragic, and how disturbing, they have in their own way become part of the mainstream, and as a result we have become desensitized not only to the horror we are witnessing, but the long term implications the events may have. Like popular cinema, their art is diminishing through loosing authenticity. They are no longer original, but duplicated which puts them into the realm of the political arena. The same can be said of the still image. Once it can be seen on websites and available on demand, it looses authenticity and therefore its art. This is also true of a truly horrific event that genuinely shocks. Through this genuineness, we discover the authenticity. This authenticity is arguably the basis of art, and through it the event has meaning. This is particularly important where there has been loss of life, as the peoples lives and deaths have significance. Once this event moves to the political arena however, it looses its authenticity as facts and truths are manipulated for the benefits of individual careers, rather than the common good. When the art dies, so does the meaningfulness of the lives lost. Therefore, our notion of art begins and ends in galleries. Exhibitions, are the only place where we see art for arts sake. From a contemporary perspective, art has become created to be seen, and to convey an idea through self expression. There are no market forces here, no demographics were at work when a photographer took the picture of a condemned building, or a child in a classroom. Just the desire and the impulse to create something from an idea. The photograph tells a thousand words, and the art is there because the picture that hangs in the gallery is unique, and this in our mainstream world is the only notion of art. [1] Walter Benjamin Marxist philosopher [2] Duhamel Dadaist commentator [3] Fillipo Tommaso Marinetti Idealogue, poet. [4] Franz Wefel (1890 1945) Czech-born poet, playwright, and novelist, whose central themes were religious faith, heroism, and human brotherhood. His best-known works are The Forty Days of Musa Dagh(933), a historical novel that portrays Armenian resistance to the Turks, and The song of Bernadette(1941)

Sugarcane :: Botany

Sugarcane Sugarcane is the common name of a species of herb belonging to the grass family. The official classification of sugarcane is Saccharum officinarum, and it belongs to the family Gramineae. It is common in tropical and subtropical countries throughout the world. It can grow from eight to twenty feet tall, and is generally about 2 inches thick. Several different horticultural varieties are known, and they differ by their stem color and length (Anonymous, 1998). The common sugarcane has been cultivated since ancient times. The most widely used form of cultivation is by stem cuttings, since many varieties do not produce fertile seeds (Microsoft, 1994). According to Helen Boyel, (1939) this is one of the many species of plants that would not survive without human intervention. It is a very easy, and profitable plant to grow, but does not naturally reproduce very effectively. The sugarcane was one of the first "cash crops" of early colonial America. It grew plentifully in the southern states, and was a major source of income for many plantations. It is grown readily in the United States in Hawaii, Louisiana, Florida and Puerto Rico. The countries that produce the largest amounts of sugarcane are Brazil, Cuba, Kazakhstan, Mexico, India, and Australia (Microsoft, 1994). Sugarcane cannot be easily harvested by machine, so for centuries it has been harvested by hand, using large machete like blades. For this reason sugarcane fields have very large amounts of farm hands, and are a major source of employment throughout South America, Central America, and even the Caribbean. In early America, when the plant was readily harvested, it was a major source of slavery in the south. However, with the advent of abolition, it was found that sugarcane could be imported cheaper than it could be grown (Microsoft, 1994). This is why the sugarcane industry in the United States has diminished so sharply since the Civil War. The primary use for sugarcane is to process sugar, which can then be used in an infinite number of products. The type of sugar produced by sugarcane is called sucrose. This is the most important of all the sugars. Sucrose is used as a sweetening agent for foods and in the manufacture of cakes, candies, preservatives, soft drinks, alcohol, and numerous other foods. Although the use of sugar in the human diet is controversial, sucrose supplies about 13 percent of all energy that is derived from foods (Escalona, 1952).

ORAC (oxygen radical absorbance capacity) assay and other methods for the evaluation of antioxidants :: essays research papers

1. Introduction Most people know about antioxidants and belive in them as preventers against cell damage, which in the most severe case can cause cancer. Almost all nutritions contain a certain amount of antioxidant – both chemical and/or biological. To measure the activity and amount of the antioxidants present in a sample, some distinctive but easy assays have been established. This paper will give a short overview of the ORAC (oxygen radical absorbance cacpacity) assay and compare it with other antioxidant assays. Besides that, the paper introduces some preliminary results on antioxidant activity of the plant Apocynum venetum conducted by the author. Fig. 1 on cover page from [9] Table of Contents 1. Introduction  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2 2. The ORAC assay – a brief introduction  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  4 3. Biochemical background of antioxidant activity  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  6 4. Comparison of ORAC with other antioxidant activity assays  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  7 5. Results in current research  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  8 6. Discussion and conclusions  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  9 References  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  10 2. The ORAC assay – a brief introduction 2.1 Theoretical background The oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay is a method for measuring the total antioxidant activity in a biological sample. Biological samples include body fluids of animals and humans (serum, plasma, urine, saliva), plant extracts, agricultural and food products, and pharmaceutical products.[6] The advantage of the ORAC assay is the wide range of applications as it can be used for both lipophilic and hydrophilic samples and compounds. Besides measuring the total antioxidant capacity, the assay can also qualitatively measure the amount of fast versus slow acting antioxidants in a sample. The principle of the ORAC is based on the following scheme: Fig. 2: Principal order of the ORAC assay[10] The sample contains a certain amount of compounds with an antioxidant activity. In water soluble samples, fluorescein is used as the probe which is protected by the antioxidants.[3] After adding a certain amount of a free radical, the loss in fluorescence over time is measured until the whole fluorescence is eliminated and the scavenging activity of the antioxidant is vanished. By integrating the area under the kinetic curve relative to the blank, the concentration of all antioxidants present in the sample can be calculated. Trolox, a water soluble tocopherol derivative, is used as a standard to calculate the antioxidant activity of the sample in trolox equivalents (μmol TE/g). 2.2 Fluorescein reaction Fluorescein belongs to the group of triphenylmethane dyes with a xanthene structure. Its fluorescence is based on the oxygen withdrawing groups and the intermittend double bounds shifting the wavelength towards the visible light range. Radicals can distubr this structure and erase the fluorescence by destructing one aromatic ring structure as seen in the reaction scheme.

Feminist Anthropology

Introduction In the center of the nineteenth century the theory of feminist anthropology emerged as a reaction to a perceived androcentric prejudice within the field of anthropology ( Lamphere 1996: 488 ) . Symbolic anthropology, on the other manus, emerged during the twentieth century and formed in response to the dissatisfaction with the theory of structural linguistics that was grounded in linguistics and semiologies ( Des Chene 1996:1275 ) . The purpose of this paper is to analyze the similarities and differences between the theories of feminist anthropology and symbolic anthropology in order to better understand the impact both motions had on the societal scientific disciplines. Both of these theories, although seemingly unrelated, portion a assortment of similarities that are at the nucleus of the paradigm displacement in anthropology that continues today. Further, an scrutiny of some of the cardinal figures in anthropology who influenced the outgrowth of these theoretical tendencies, will further clarify the principle for their development.OrAdditionally, an scrutiny of some of the cardinal figures in anthropology who influenced these paradigm ‘s will further light these th eories ‘ importance. Although this paper can non supply a complete analysis of what differs and remains the same between feminist and symbolic anthropology, we can make a better apprehension of the two theoretical schools of idea and the impact they had on the field of anthropology and societal scientific discipline as a whole. However, before comparing and contrasting the theories, it is indispensable to hold a basic apprehension of what each theory entails. Basic Dogmas of Feminist Anthropology In the history of anthropology, three different moving ridges of feminist anthropology occurred with varying focal points ( Gellner and Stockett, 2006 ) . These different moving ridges did non to the full occur in chronological order and there are convergences with some of the theories of each still relevant today. The first moving ridge occurred between 1850 and 1920, and had the primary end of including adult females ‘s voices into descriptive anthropology. At the clip, there was really small ethnographic informations refering adult females, and the informations that did be was mostly the studies of male sources talking for adult females and analyzed through male ethnographers ( Pine 1996: 253 ) . The focal point of the 2nd moving ridge, which occurred between 1920 and 1980 was an effort to divide the impressions of sex and gender. Until this point, the footings had been used interchangeably and the word â€Å" Gender † referred to both the constructs of male and female, the cultural building that created these two classs and the relationship between them. ( Pine 1996:253 ) . This was debatable since the definition of gender varies from civilization to civilization and can take to false apprehensions and the creative activity of cultural false beliefs in the field of anthropology . Further, during the 2nd moving ridge, feminist anthropologists pushed for a rejection of the bing dualities between work forces and adult females that were present in Western civilization, such as the thought that work forces should work while adult females stayed at place. During the 2nd moving ridge, mercenary research into the thoughts of societal dealingss about adult females, reproduction and their productive capablenesss in the work force became popular, particularly how these factors related to other societal factors such as societal category. Therefore, in the 2nd moving ridge, feminist anthropologists argued for a move off from the wide generalisations that had plagued the field of anthropology for coevalss ( Lamphere 1996:488 ) . This is linked to the single focal point put-forth by the interpretivist motion in anthropology during the 1950s. However, it differs because it makes connexions between adult females irrespective of what civilization they belong to. Contemporary women's rightist anthropologists make up the 3rd moving ridge of feminist anthropology, which started in the 1980s and continues throughout the new millenary. Feminist anthropologists of today, are no longer entirely focused on the gender dissymmetry but instead focal point on the differences that exist between classs such as category, race and ethnicity ( Geller and Stockett, 2006 ) . This modern-day focal point therefore examines the differences that exist between adult females with differing societal backgrounds, instead than concentrating on the difference between males and females ( McGee, Warms 1996: 392 ) . Contemporary women's rightist anthropology besides examines how these assorted societal factors interact, particularly in the con text of power, which is frequently used as the chief method of analysis. However, this method has resulted in a extremely disconnected theoretical attack, which uses combined pieces of assorted theories ( Geller and Stockett, 2006 ) . Cardinal Peoples in Feminist Anthropology One of the cardinal figures in the first moving ridge of feminist anthropology was Ruth Benedict ( 1887-1948 ) . Benedict was a pupil of Franz Boas, and one of the first female anthropologists, gaining her doctor's degree from Columbia University in 1923 ( Buckner 1997: 34 ) . Most of her work focused on Native Americans and other groups which led her to develop her â€Å" configurational attack † to civilization, which views cultural systems as working to prefer certain personality types among different societies ( Buckner 1997: 34 ) . Another cardinal figure who emerged in the 2nd moving ridge of feminist anthropology was Margaret Mead ( 1901-1978 ) another pupil of Franz Boas, who was friends with Ruth Benedict. Meads feminist work centered on the separating factors between sex and gender. Many of her theories were influenced by or borrowed from Gestalt psychological science, a subfield of psychological science which focused on analysing personality as an interconnected psy chological form alternatively of a aggregation of unrelated elements ( McGee, Warms 1996:202 ) Her work attempted to divide the biological factors from the cultural factors that influence human behaviour and personality development and helped to construct a model for the emerging subject of feminist anthropology. Additionally, her work analyzed the permeant sexual dissymmetry that existed in the ethnographic literature of anthropology during the clip. ( Levinson, Ember 1996:488 ) . Basic Dogmas of Interpretive Anthropology The intent of symbolic anthropology is to analyze the different ways that people understand their milieus, every bit good as the differing readings of those who act within them. Symbolic anthropologists believe that these readings can be combined to make a shared cultural system of significance, or shared apprehensions shared between members of the same civilization. However, it is understood that non all members of a civilization will hold the exact same beliefs ( Des Chene 1996:1274 ) . One of the chief focal points of symbolic anthropology is the survey of symbols and the assorted ways that symbols are created and have their significances assigned to them. Symbolic anthropologists believe that scrutiny of these symbols and the procedures that create them ( such as myth and faith ) will light the cardinal inquiries of human societal life shared by each civilization ( Spencer 1996:535 ) . Therefore, symbolic anthropologists view civilization as an independent system of intending tha t can be deciphered by construing cardinal symbols and rites that create it ( Spencer 1996:535 ) . Overall, there are two cardinal premises in symbolic anthropology. The first of these premises provinces that the beliefs of a certain group of people, nevertheless unintelligible they may look, can ever be understood when they are examined as portion of an bing cultural system of significance ( Des Chene 1996:1274 ) . The 2nd premiss provinces that the actions of a specific group of people are guided by the reading of these symbols. These two premises allows for symbolic anthropologists to use symbolism to construe both ideal and material activities of a specific group of people. Frequently, the focal point of symbolic anthropology will be on faith, cosmology, ritual activity, and expressive imposts such as mythology and the acting humanistic disciplines ( Des Chene 1996:1274 ) . However, symbolic anthropologists besides study other signifiers of societal organisation such as affinity and political organisation, which allows research workers to analyze the function that these symbols play in the mundane life of people from different civilizations. ( Des Chene 1996:1274 ) . Cardinal Peoples in Interpretive Anthropology Overall, the field of symbolic anthropology can be divided into two major attacks, each associated with one of the cardinal figures of the theory. The first attack is associated with Clifford Geertz and the University of Chicago and the other with Victor W. Turner at Cornell University. Geertz ‘s place illustrates the interpretative attack to symbolic anthropology, while Turner ‘s illustrates the symbolic attack. Clifford Geertz ( 1926-2006 ) studied at Harvard University in the 1950s and was strongly influenced by the Hagiographas of philosophers such as Langer, Ryle, and Weber. ( Handler 1991 ; Tongs 1993 ) Geertz was influenced mostly by the sociologist Max Weber, finally utilizing different facets of their thought as cardinal elements in his theory of interpretative anthropology, and was more interested in the operations of â€Å" civilization † than the assorted ways that symbols interact within the societal procedure. In his digest of essays entitled â€Å" The Interpretation of Cultures † ( 1973c ) , Geertz argued that an analysis of civilization should â€Å" non [ be ] an experimental scientific discipline in hunt of jurisprudence but an interpretative 1 in hunt of significance † ( Geertz 1973d:5 ) . Further, Geertz believed that civilization was a societal phenomenon and a shared system of intersubjective symbols and significances ( Parker 1985 ) .` This can be seen in his ain definition of civilization, which was â€Å" an historically familial form of significances embodied in symbols, a system of familial constructs expressed in symbolic signifiers by agencies of which work forces communicate, perpetuate, and develop their cognition about and their attitudes toward life † ( Geertz 1973e:89 ) . Geertz ‘s symbolic anthropology focused on the different ways in which symbols operate within a specific civilization, particularly how persons â€Å" see, experience, and think about the universe † ( Ortner 1983:129-131 ) . He believed that civilization is expressed through the external symbols utilized by society and is non merely stored inside the heads of members of that society. Geertz, argued that adult male utilized the symbolic as â€Å" beginnings of light † in order to point himself in his ain system of significance ( Geertz 1973a:45 ) . Therefore, societies use their symbols to show their ain alone â€Å"worldview, value-orientation, ethos, [ and other facets of their civilization ] † ( Ortner 1983:129 ) . Symbols could be seen as â€Å" vehicles of ‘culture † who ‘s intending should non be studied in and of themselves, but alternatively should be studied for what they can uncover about a peculiar civilization. Geertz argued that these cultural symbols shaped the ways that societal histrions see, experience, and think about the universe ( Ortner 1983:129 ) . Victor Witter Turner ( 1920-1983 ) was the leader of the other subdivision of symbolic anthropology ( Turner 1980:143 ) . Born in Scotland, Turner was influenced by the structural-functionalist attack of British societal anthropology that had been outstanding during the clip. In peculiar, Turner was influenced by Emile Durkheim, which shaped his version of symbolic anthropology to concentrate more on the operations of â€Å" society â €  and the ways in which different symbols operate within it. ( Ortner 1983:128-129 ) . Turner, like old British anthropologists, was interested in look intoing whether symbols really functioned within the societal procedure the manner current symbolic anthropologists believed they did. Thus, Turner ‘s attack to symbols was highly different than that of his modern-day, Clifford Geertz. Alternatively of being interested in symbols as vehicles of â€Å" civilization † as Geertz was, Turner believed that symbols functioned as â€Å" operators in the societal procedure † ( Ortner 1983:131 ) and that â€Å" the symbolic look of shared significances † , non the attractive force of stuff involvements, prevarication at the centre of human relationships † ( Maning 1984:20 ) . Turner believed that symbols â€Å" instigate societal action † and exercise â€Å" determinable influences tending individuals and groups to action † ( Turner 1967:36 ) and felt that these â€Å" operators, † if placed in a certain agreement and context, would bring forth â€Å" societal transmutations † which both act to maintain the people in a society tied to the society ‘s specific societal norms every bit good as decide societal struggle and assistance in altering the societal position of the histrions involved ( Ortner 1983:131 ) . Theoretical Similarities There are several theoretical similarities between feminist and symbolic anthropology. Both Fieldss recognize the dynamic nature of societal systems. Like symbolic anthropology which views civilization in footings of symbols and mental footings, accounting for its transient and altering nature, 2nd wave feminist anthropologists rejected Durkheim’s impression of a inactive system composed of built-in dualities, and sought to demo that the societal systems are dynamic. Further, both women's rightist and symbolic anthropology believe in â€Å" actor-centric † actions, intending that actions are non separate from societal histrions but a portion of their societal model. ( Ortner 1983:136 ) . Another cardinal similarity is the focal points shared by both women's rightist and symbolic anthropology. Focus on individuality and difference is a cardinal focal point of both feminist anthropology and symbolic anthropology. This means that there is a focal point on societal classs such as age, business, faith, position, and so on. Power is besides an of import constituent of analysis for feminist anthropology, since the building and passage of individuality occurs through discourses and actions that are structured by contexts of power ( Gellner and Stockett, 2006 ) . However, this besides fits in with Turner ‘s analysis of symbols and societal action. Further, both theories challenge the construct of normality and catholicity that many old anthropological theories supported. The rejection of normality and cosmopolitan truths, every bit good as the thought that anthropology must non merely analyze on a cultural degree, but besides on an single degree, is cardinal to symbolic anthropology. This thought is chiefly seen in feminist anthropology through the thought that male point of view differs well from the female point of view, and that both must be accounted for. The rejection of normality is farther seen in feminist anthropology through fagot theory, which is the most recent reaction against the impression of â€Å"normalcy† Queer theory challenges the construct of heteronormativity, or the premise that heterosexualism and the ensuing societal establishments are the normative socio-sexual constructions in all societies ( Gellner and Stockett, 2006 ) . The theory argues that gender is non a portion of the indispensable ego and is alternatively based upon the socially constructed nature of sexual Acts of the Apostless and individualities, which consist of many varied constituents ( Warner, 1993 ; Barry, 2002 ) . Therefore, like symbolic anthropology, feminist anthropology relies to a great extent on the construct of cultural constructivism. Arguing different positions Due to cultural growing and intervention of Man and Women. The most obvious similarity between the theories is that both were a response to old anthropological theories. The symbolic and interpretative theory was a reactions to structuralism that was grounded in linguistics and semiologies and pioneered by L? vi-Strauss ( Des Chene 1996:1275 ) . The subfield of Feminist Anthropology emerged as a reaction to a perceived androcentric prejudice within the subject ( Lamphere 1996: Additionally, another cardinal similarity between the theories is that they have non been discredited position in the modern societal scientific disciplines? ? Theoretical Differences One of the chief differences between the two anthropological attacks is the catholicity found in feminist anthropology. Although the construct of catholicity is under scrutiny today, early women's rightist anthropologists believed that there was a cosmopolitan subordination of adult females to work forces, in all civilizations around the Earth. Therefore, one of the chief constituents of feminist anthropology was to seek for cosmopolitan accounts for female subordination and gender inequality. However, the thought that all adult females suffer the same subjugation merely because they are adult females does non suit within the symbolic and interpretivist model. Symbolic anthropologists argue that these historically specific Western premises about the societal differences between work forces and adult females can non be decently applied to non-Western societies ( Spencer 1996:538 ) . Another of import difference between feminist and symbolic anthropology is that feminist anthropology c hiefly focuses on the constructs of gender and gender, while symbolic anthropology examines all societal facets. Varies from civilization to civilization Muslim adult females viewed as opressed, but they view forced sexualization as opression Decision

Logic Model

Logic model Brief history of evaluation and the logic Model Scriven (1991) would argue that evaluation has been around for many years, and is only now recognised as a discipline. He would go further and say it is like a knowledge which has been around for a decade before we were discussing its use, nature and logic. It is essentially different from science in its methods and thought. He would argue it is only recently we have appreciated its value as a discipline we still have a long way to go. Despite the current popularity of logic Models they date back to the 1970s. The first publication that used the term â€Å"logic model† was quoted as Evaluation: Promise and Performance by Joseph S. Wholey (1979). Suchman (1967) is similar to Bennett's hierarchy, The Seven Levels of Evidence (1975, 1976), well-known in Cooperative Extension circles, was an early predecessor of today's logic model. The backgrounds and footprints of logic model thinking can be seen in the private sector, public sector and non-profit sector. Private sector- The private sector has experienced total quality management (TQM) and performance measurement movements. TQM is an on-going process that involves management and staff to meet the requirements of clients and other stakeholders while keeping costs to a minimum. Moullin (2002) Public sector- The Government Performance targets with health and social care which asked for outcomes which were linked to funding. E. g. Accident and Emergency waiting times, more recently the push for released prisoners who are managed within the community by agencies will receive funding if they do not reoffend within a set time frame. This is similar to the payment by results concept within the health service. This saw the influx of program managers being employed within the public sector. We also have performance indicators within the Local Authority which measure assessment time frames and timely reviews of LAC. Non-profit sector- The non-profit sector is concerned with improving programs to produce outcomes. This has resulted from the new commissioning guide lines where contracts dictate agreed outcomes linked to funding. I have chosen the logic model for evaluation and am going to discuss its strengths and weaknesses. A logic model is an evaluation tool that provides a way of illustrating a program visually so it can be understood by all stake holders. It can be presented in table format which can be presented in easy read language thus can involve clients with disabilities. It shows planned activities and results expected from it and there is no right or wrong way of developing the model. It provides a picture or diagram of what is going to be done and what the program evaluation is going to be. The Logic model has three approaches to evaluation: It is a client centred (bottom up approach) approach it starts with the desired effects or results and works up to outlining how we will get the results. It is best used when evaluating an existing activity. Within this research it will look at the existing processes of weather the voice of the child is heard within the Looked after Children Review (LAC)? Top down approach starting with the pre-planned program activities and strategies that can evaluate a program in its developmental phase, within the process of LAC review where the voice of the child is a concept that the government is wanting in place. The Independent Reviewing Manager is responsible for ensuring the voice of the child is heard. The most important strength of the Logic Model is that both approaches can be used at the same time. Benefits and limitations of the Logic Model It is a usefully program planning and evaluation tool. It is simple yet complex it can be time consuming as you seek to involve all stake holders. It may not always address weather we are doing the right thing and get caught up in creating the model then weather the program is the right thing to do. It mat stifle creativity and spontaneity as it has clear phases to follow. It is easier for the stake holders to understand the overall purpose of the program and it ensures the inputs and outputs correspond. It identifies key questions to be evaluated. This may not always cover all the outcomes that may happen as a result of the evaluation, e. g. he question asked may result in other unexpected outcomes which may be overlooked. Taylor et al (2008) This model clearly outlines the intended key elements to all stake holders, staff, clients, policy makers and the agencies. The model often focuses on positive change sadly this may not be the result as change is not always positive. The model can reveal the break in steps in any part of the progra m activities, revealing the limitation where a great deal of patience is required. It may simplify the complicated process of cause and attribution where they may be many issues that influence process and outcomes. Scriven puts in very simple terms â€Å"The relation between mosquitos and mosquito bites† (Scriven, 1991: 77) it is important to realise the logic model only makes a statement of intent not reality. Taylor et al (2008) Theory under pinning the logic model Empowerment Empowerment is a contested concept which can be defined in many ways depending on peoples understanding and ideas. Adams (2003) According to Wallerstein (1992), states empowerment is a social-action process. It encourages participation of people, organizations, and communities towards the goals of Individual and community control. Towards political efficacy, improved quality of Life and social justice, While Whitmore (1988) feels the concept of Empowerment needs to be more clearly defined; she states that there are some common Underlying assumptions: Individuals are assumed to understand their own needs better than anyone else and therefore should have the power both to define and act upon them. All people possess strengths upon which they can build. Empowerment is a lifelong endeavour. Personal knowledge and experience are effective and useful in managing. McDougall (1997) suggests â€Å"empowerment is not an intervention or a strategy. Rather it is a fundamental way of thinking†. â€Å"Empowerment is not giving people power; people already have plenty of power, in the wealth of their knowledge and motivation, to do their jobs magnificently. We define empowerment as letting this power out† (Blanchard, K 1960). As we can see from some of the definitions of empowerment that the individuals carrying out the evaluation themselves need to be committed to the values of equality and social inclusion otherwise the outcomes may be affected highlighting one of the weakness of the theory and logic model where we can have unexpected outcomes, and influences we may not have anticipated. Participation Participation of children and young people in social work policy and practice has been a fairly new concept. For many years professionals interpretation of children’s feelings, needs and wishes have determined services and influenced research and policy. Franklin et al (2004). It has slowly dawned on professionals over the last 30 years that children and young people need to be involved in decision making and processes. This desire to involve children and young people has only increased since 2000 Oldfield et al (2004). Participation now is central to current government legislation, policy and guidance framework underpinning delivery of public services to children and young people. This thinking has been influenced by social and political changes at national and international levels. Literature Search on Participation It is important to suggest that you cannot have empowerment without participation and participation without empowerment. Alderson (1993) has made us aware through his research the competencies children have in getting involved in decision making, and children and young people have been identified as a group in their own right. Alderson particular focused on children and young people’s ability to discuss and give consent to surgery. Fanklin et al (2004) The emergence of the children’s rights agenda. Children and young people began to gain legal participatory rights in decision- making under the UN convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), it was ratified in the UK in 1991. This focused adults to think about how to involve children and young people in decision â€Å"appropriate to abilities and understanding† Franklin et al (2004:6). Marchant et al (2004:136) would suggest that too often we are focusing on children and young people’s competence to participate rather than on adult’s competence to support children and young people to make decisions and take action. There has been an increasing influence of the consumer; the concept that as consumer’s children and young people are given more power threw legislation and policy to exercise choice and influence over the services they receive. Franklin et al (2004). Sadly majority of LAC have had no choice in coming into care but within the system they should be given choice. The reality of choice is often restricted by resources. My question would be do they really have choice are the consumers? The impact of high profile child protection cases in the late 1980s and early 1990s, which uncovered systematic physical and sexual abuse by staff in children’s homes led to an acknowledgement that â€Å"adults know best† and will act in the interest of children and young people had failed many children. There was a â€Å"culture of collusion, neglect, indifference and silence on the part of staff† Landsdown (2001:3). Children were denied a voice ‘speaking with’, ‘listening to’ and actively involving children and young people would have ensured their protection. Scottish Executive (2004) There is a growing movement of children’s service user and carers, we have seen a development of groups such as the Children’s Rights Alliance for England (2005); the Children’s Society (2006), National Young Carers Initiative and A National Voice, who are working towards transforming the status of children and young people in the UK. Children’s participation in the United Kingdom (UK) has moved a long way. Children and young people can play a crucial role when organisations listen to them in delivering services. Wright et al (2006) Methods There are robust applied reasons to view qualitative evaluation methods as harmonious to quantitative methods. Reichardt et al (1994). There is a wide debateon the two methods. Datta (1994) suggested that the difference in the two models are less apparent in practice then in theory and that often evaluators will use more than one approach due to the complexity of the work they do. Reichardt (1994) The table below tries to show differences between qualitative and quantitative evaluation approaches. For this research we will be using both, questions and narrative approach to allow the stakeholders to express their views. It will be an indicative approach starting with the data and then making sense by looking at the themes that emerge through language, feelings and experience. It is a holistic approach which is empowering as it tries to represent all stake holder’s views as well as evaluators. It is considered a natural way where the research is not looking to lead the stakeholders in any one direction. Miles & Huberman, (1994) it is a holistic approach. Key Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation Approaches| Qualitative EvaluationIs Often Characterized by| Quantitative EvaluationIs Often Characterized by| †¢ Inductive approach to data gathering,interpretation, and reporting†¢ Holistic approach: finding gestalts for theevaluation results†¢ Verstehen: understanding the subjectivelived experiences of program stakeholders(discovering their truths)†¢ Using natural anguage throughout theevaluation process†¢ In-depth, detailed data collection†¢ Use of case studies†¢ The evaluator as the primary measuringinstrument†¢ A naturalistic approach: does not explicitlymanipulate the setting| †¢ Research hypotheses and questions that are tested in the evaluation†¢ Finding patterns that either corroborate ordisconfirm pa rticular hypotheses and answer the evaluation questions†¢ Understanding how social reality, asobserved by the evaluator, corroborates ordisconfirms hypotheses and evaluationquestions†¢ Emphasis on measurement procedures that lend themselves to numerical representations of variables†¢ Representative samples of stakeholder groups†¢ Use sample sizes with sufficient statisticalpower to detect expected outcomes†¢ Measuring instruments that are constructed with a view to making them reliable and valid†¢ Evaluator control and ability to manipulatethe setting, which improves the internalvalidity, the statistical conclusions validity,and the construct validity of the researchdesigns| (Miles & Huberman, 1994) We will be using a purposive sample of stakeholders to interview. The interviews will include 2 social workers, 2 families, 2 young people who have left care, 2 Independent reviewing managers and 2 foster carers. This is because for the research we want to interview people involved in the LAC review as our research is about children and young people going through the process and weather their voice is heard. The table below shows the advantages and disadvantages of sampling methods and why we have chosen purposive sampling. Sampling techniques: Advantages and disadvantage Technique| Descriptions| Advantages| Disadvantages| Simple random| Random sample from whole population| Highly representative if all subjects participate; the ideal| Not possible without complete list of population members; potentially uneconomical to achieve; can be disruptive to isolate members from a group; time-scale may be too long, data/sample could change| Stratified random| Random sample from identifiable groups (strata), subgroups, etc. Can ensure that specific groups are represented, even proportionally, in the sample(s) (e. g. , by gender), by selecting individuals from strata list| More complex, requires greater effort than simple random; strata must be carefully defined| Cluster| Random samples of successive clusters of subjects (e. g. , by institution) until small groups are chosen as units| Possible to select randomly when no single list of population members exists, but local lists do; data collected on groups may avoid introduction of confounding by isolating members| Clusters in a level must be equivalent and some natural ones are not for essential characteristics (e. g. geographic: numbers equal, but unemployment rates differ)| Stage| Combination of cluster (randomly selecting clusters) and random or stratified random sampling of individuals| Can make up probability sample by random at stages and within groups; possible to select random sample when population lists are very localized| Complex, combines limitations of cluster and stratified random sampling| Purposive| Hand-pick subjects on the basis of specific characteristics| Ensures balance of group sizes when multiple groups are t o be selected| Samples are not easily defensible as being representative of populations due to potential subjectivity of researcher| | Select individuals as they come to fill a quota by characteristics proportional to populations| Ensures selection of adequate numbers of subjects with appropriate characteristics| Not possible to prove that the sample is representative of designated population| Snowball| Subjects with desired traits or characteristics give names of further appropriate subjects| Possible to include members of groups where no lists or identifiable clusters even exist (e. g. , drug abusers, criminals)| No way of knowing whether the sample is representative of the population| Volunteer, accidental, convenience| Either asking for volunteers, or the consequence of not all those selected finally participating, or a set of subjects who just happen to be available| Inexpensive way of ensuring sufficient numbers of a study| Can be highly unrepresentative| Black, T. R. (1999:11 8) For this research the narrative approach for interviewing the sample has been chosen. What we mean by the word narrative is important to understand why we are using this approach. The  Oxford Mini Dictionary  defines narrative as ‘a spoken or written account of something’ (Hawker, 2002: 406). Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary  is not specific about the written or spoken, with its ‘an account of any occurrence’ Macdonald, (1972: 876) thereby including the possibility of other types of communication visual, aural, tactile and so on. This wider, inclusive definition is important because it recognizes and allows the use of signing, Braille, and other communications systems/languages. It provides the following through the interviews, locates the person in context describing setting, character and mental summary of events, conflict and outcomes. Mishler (1986) The narrative process will enable collection of data from the sample selected and they will be able to tell their stories this is very important within the LAC population as we have more black children and young people represented in our system. They will be able to tell their story from their cultural perspective Marshall et al (1995). The main advantage of the process is that in the interviews we will be able to find the voice of the participant in the particular time, place and setting in this case the LAC review. Connelly et al (1990) this can also lead to gaining insight into the organisational change which can lead to cultural change. Faber (1998), Boje (1991), Beech (2000) It can also bring insight into decision making through stories and how knowledge is transferred in the organisation. OiConnor, (1997) Darwent,( 2000). We need to also acknowledge the limitations of the narrative approach. We can have researcher bias which can influence the data, the sample may not be credible, sample could have been influenced by other studies they were involved in, and background information may be missing, the analysis of the researcher could be biased, the very presence of the researcher may affect the research and data, the present information may not influence the future. Heisenburg (1927) and building trust with the sample takes time the snapshot view and small sample may impact the outcomes as they may not be representative of the population. Hammersley et al (1983) Hammersley (1990) We will be using semi-structured interview method as it is complementary to using the narrative approach to asking questions, and its strengths and limitations. â€Å"Interviewing is a complex and demanding technique† (Frey and Oishi 1995:02) This researcher sets the environment for the data to be collected. The interviewee has time to share their views but the process relies on the interviewee willing to give an honest answer. Breakwell et al (1950). It allows the interviewer to ask open questions and supplement ones to clarify views, Frey and Oishi (1995). They may not be completely honest and ask elaborate questions back to ascertain exactly what the research is about. (Wimmer and Dominick (1997). The data and validity of the research may well be impacted by these. Breakwell et al (1995)